Ireland was the only Western country to escape the Germanic invasions of the 4th and 5th centuries. It developed a thriving Christian civilisation. Monasteries, education, art, poetry and theology all flourished gloriously. The Ireland of that era is often called ‘the island of saints and scholars’. Although the monasteries were centres of ascetic life, they were also centres of evangelism. The Irish bishops who exercised pastoral oversight among the laity were elected by the monastic clergy and seem to have been subject to the abbot of the monastery.
The further development of monasteries in Ireland
seems to owe much to Finnian (c540) who set up a monastery in Clonnard
in Meath. This became a model for other establishments. Each tribe seems
to have built its religious life around a monastery which thus became
its pastoral centre. By the 6th century these monasteries had
also become centres of study noted for their Latin scholarship. The
Scriptures were studied and copied as were works of Latin theology from
the continent. Later on in the 8th century the unmistakeable
swirling patterns and subtle colouration of Celtic art would be adapted
by early Christian monks for the greater glory of God. The Book of Kells,
now in Dublin, an exquisite illuminated manuscript of the Gospels in
Latin made by Irish monks, is one such example. From the monasteries
monks set out to go as missionaries as far as Germany. These retained
their own emphases, which developed because Ireland was separated from
the development of continental Christianity by the intervening presence
of the heathen Anglo-Saxons.
In Wales a monastery was established on Caldey Island by Illtyd, contemporary to Finnian and very similar to the work in Ireland. David succeeded him c560, establishing a monastery at Menevia, now St David’s. The movement in Scotland began under Ninian earlier. According to tradition he was a native of SW Scotland, captured as a hostage by the Romans and sent to Rome where he was converted to Christianity. There he was ordained and persuaded to take the gospel back to his own people. He returned via Tours where he spent some time under the guidance of the great bishop Martin. He landed at Whithorn in Galloway where he set up a monastery, Candida Casa, and a school. He travelled widely preaching and set up churches.
After this came a major input from Ireland from Columba, 521-597. He was born in Northern Ireland and showed early concern for the work of the gospel. He studied under Finnian of Clonnard and was ordained, going on various missions and establishing a number of monasteries. After a conflict leading to civil war over translating some Scriptures from a precious copy obtained from Rome, he was filled with remorse and went into self-imposed exile. With twelve companions he set out for pagan Scotland. He landed on Iona, an island off the west coast and set up a monastery. It became a centre for prayer and study and also for the evangelism of Scotland. He worked by making contact with political leaders and was generally very peaceful.
From Iona missionaries went out and established churches across southern Scotland and northern England. The main figure here was Aidan, d651. He was a monk who pioneered the expansion of Christianity into northern England. He was invited by King Oswald of Northumbria to set up a monastery and in 635 led a community of monks to Lindisfarne, an island off the Northumbrian coast. He was appointed abbot and first bishop of Lindisfarne.
Another significant Irish missionary was Columbanus, 543-615, who led a team of twelve missionaries who worked in eastern France, Switzerland and northern Italy. The two centres of Iona and Lindisfarne have become the focal points of the increasing interest in things Celtic, especially Celtic Christianity. It would appear these have a strong ecumenical and new age flavour, according to the spirit of the present age.
Celtic differences
These developments took place prior to and independently of the mission sent by Gregory of Rome to the kingdom of Kent in 596 to evangelise the Angles, Saxons and Jutes of southern Britain. This was headed by an Italian monk, Augustine, who became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. Within a few years the king of Kent, who was overlord of much of the southern part of the country, had accepted Christianity. There was widespread acceptance by his nobles and Christian missions spread out from Kent. Prior to this there seems to have been no attempt on the part of the Celtic churches of Wales and Cornwall to win these southern areas for Christianity. This is often explained in terms of ethnic hatred. The onslaughts of the invaders and their savagery meant that the Celtic people wanted nothing to do with them. After Augustine had established his work in Kent, he attempted to negotiate with the leaders of the Celtic churches of Wales, but the meeting proved to be a disaster because of Augustine’s high-handed attitude. Had he offered friendship and co-operation, positive results might have come, but he seems to have considered it his work to introduce Roman church practices into Britain, whereas the Celtic British saw no reason to change.
In external matters there were certainly differences between the Celtic churches and the practices of the Italian churches which were spread across western Europe. Today these are remembered mainly as differences over the date of Easter and how monks should cut their hair! The Celtic churches were not centralised organisations although a powerful individual like Columba could exercise tremendous influence. In Ireland the abbot was usually administratively superior to the bishop although some bishops were abbots. In Wales usually the abbot and bishop were the same person. Although debates fastened on such issues there were bigger questions. For example: ‘Is uniformity necessary?’ and ‘Should practices in matters indifferent and drawn from an alien culture be imposed upon churches?’ Uniformity was an excessive concern to Augustine and his successors. There was variety of practice amongst the Celtic churches. Although they did not want to adopt Roman practices it is clear that they had a respect for the Bishop of Rome who was considered to be the patriarch of the Western church.
It was in the north of England that the two forms of Christianity collided. By the middle of the 7th century the Roman party were active in the south of Northumbria whereas the north had long been the preserve of the Celtic mission from Scotland. Bitter disputes developed and to attempt a settlement the King of Northumbria summoned a Council to Whitby in 644. After extensive debate it was decided to follow the Roman practices. A minority loyal to the old Celtic ways withdrew into Scotland where for a time their practices were the norm. Much of Ireland had already changed, but the old Celtic way endured in Wales until the 12th century.